Unit 5 covers reproduction, Mendel’s laws of inheritance, and chromosomal effects on inheritance. During the reproduction, the mutation and DNA replication are examples of evolution. Crossing over, independent assortment, and diploid cells turning into haploid cells are examples of system interaction that occur in stages of meiosis. Genes specifies traits, and evolution naturally selects the traits that are inherited and eliminate some genetic disorders, but evolution must also obey the laws of inheritance. System interaction happens between organisms, which provide genetic information during mating. It also happens between chromosome as seen sex-linked traits for example.
1.Identify the differences between asexual and sexual reproduction
- In asexual reproduction, only a single parent cell pass all of its genes to the offsprings through cell division. The genes of offspring will is identical of the parent cell. In sexual reproduction, two parent cells contribute genes to the offspring. It will have genetic variation in offsprings. Asexual reproduction use mitosis while sexual reproduction go through meiosis.
(1)Diff[http://www.diffen.com/difference/Asexual_Reproduction_vs_Sexual_Reproduction]
(2)Topics[http://www.biotopics.co.uk/genes1/asexual_and_sexual_reproduction.html]
- In asexual reproduction, only a single parent cell pass all of its genes to the offsprings through cell division. The genes of offspring will is identical of the parent cell. In sexual reproduction, two parent cells contribute genes to the offspring. It will have genetic variation in offsprings. Asexual reproduction use mitosis while sexual reproduction go through meiosis.
(1)Diff[http://www.diffen.com/difference/Asexual_Reproduction_vs_Sexual_Reproduction]
(2)Topics[http://www.biotopics.co.uk/genes1/asexual_and_sexual_reproduction.html]
2. Explain the role of meiosis and fertilization in sexually reproducing organisms
- In sexual reproduction, one haploid gamete from male and one gamete from female fused to form a diploid zygote during fertilization. Then the genetic information will passed into somatic cells. In the meiosis, this type of cell division will reduces the diploid cell to haploid cell that works to produce gametes. It can help balance the chromosome number in organisms.
(1) Asu[http://embryo.asu.edu/pages/meiosis-humans]
(2)Ncbi[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK26843/]
- In sexual reproduction, one haploid gamete from male and one gamete from female fused to form a diploid zygote during fertilization. Then the genetic information will passed into somatic cells. In the meiosis, this type of cell division will reduces the diploid cell to haploid cell that works to produce gametes. It can help balance the chromosome number in organisms.
(1) Asu[http://embryo.asu.edu/pages/meiosis-humans]
(2)Ncbi[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK26843/]
3. Specify the importance of homologous chromosomes to meiosis
- The homologous chromosomes are two chromosomes with same length, same position and staining pattern. They paired together to from gametes in meiosis. Each pair of chromosomes carry genes control the same inherited characters in the same loci, such as eye color.
(1) About[http://biology.about.com/od/geneticsglossary/g/homologouschrom.htm]
(2)Wise[http://www.wisegeek.org/what-are-homologous-chromosomes.htm]
- The homologous chromosomes are two chromosomes with same length, same position and staining pattern. They paired together to from gametes in meiosis. Each pair of chromosomes carry genes control the same inherited characters in the same loci, such as eye color.
(1) About[http://biology.about.com/od/geneticsglossary/g/homologouschrom.htm]
(2)Wise[http://www.wisegeek.org/what-are-homologous-chromosomes.htm]
4. Describe how the chromosome number is reduced from diploid to haploid through the stages of meiosis
- The meiosis 1 starts with a diploid cell. In the prophase 1, the chromosomes pair up and form homologous chromosomes. Next in the metaphase 1, the homologous pair of chromosomes lined up at the plate. Then in the Anaphase 1 the spindles separate the homolog and move toward opposite sides. In the Telophase 1, the cell divided and form two haploid cells.
(1)Iupui[http://www.biology.iupui.edu/biocourses/N100/2k4ch9meiosisnotes.html]
(2)Stcc[http://faculty.stcc.edu/BIOL102/Lectures/lesson9/stepbystep.htm]
- The meiosis 1 starts with a diploid cell. In the prophase 1, the chromosomes pair up and form homologous chromosomes. Next in the metaphase 1, the homologous pair of chromosomes lined up at the plate. Then in the Anaphase 1 the spindles separate the homolog and move toward opposite sides. In the Telophase 1, the cell divided and form two haploid cells.
(1)Iupui[http://www.biology.iupui.edu/biocourses/N100/2k4ch9meiosisnotes.html]
(2)Stcc[http://faculty.stcc.edu/BIOL102/Lectures/lesson9/stepbystep.htm]
5. Identify three important differences between mitosis and meiosis
- Mitosis begin with somatic cells, but Meiosis only begins with sex cells
- Mitosis does not have crossing over, but Meiosis has.
- Mitosis produce diploid cell, and Meiosis produce haploid cell.
(1)Stu[http://www.publishyourarticles.net/knowledge-hub/science/what-are-the-main-differences-between-mitosis-and-meiosis.html]
(2) Diff[http://www.diffen.com/difference/Meiosis_vs_Mitosis]
- Mitosis begin with somatic cells, but Meiosis only begins with sex cells
- Mitosis does not have crossing over, but Meiosis has.
- Mitosis produce diploid cell, and Meiosis produce haploid cell.
(1)Stu[http://www.publishyourarticles.net/knowledge-hub/science/what-are-the-main-differences-between-mitosis-and-meiosis.html]
(2) Diff[http://www.diffen.com/difference/Meiosis_vs_Mitosis]
6. Discuss the importance of crossing over, independent assortment, and random fertilization to increasing genetic variability
- Genetic variation contributes to evolution. Crossing over helps the exchange of genetic material on homologous chromosomes in prophase 1. Independent assortment lets the daughter cell have 50% to get a maternal chromosome or a paternal chromosome from the homologous pair. Random fertilization help the egg and sperm fused together for DNA combination.
(1) Sc[http://www.slideshare.net/annapurna1976/contribution-of-crossing-over-and-random-assortment-to]
(2)Ck-12[http://www.ck12.org/book/CK-12-Biology-Concepts/r18/section/2.38/]
- Genetic variation contributes to evolution. Crossing over helps the exchange of genetic material on homologous chromosomes in prophase 1. Independent assortment lets the daughter cell have 50% to get a maternal chromosome or a paternal chromosome from the homologous pair. Random fertilization help the egg and sperm fused together for DNA combination.
(1) Sc[http://www.slideshare.net/annapurna1976/contribution-of-crossing-over-and-random-assortment-to]
(2)Ck-12[http://www.ck12.org/book/CK-12-Biology-Concepts/r18/section/2.38/]
7. Define terms associated with genetics problems: P, F1, F2, dominant, recessive, homozygous, heterozygous, phenotype, and genotype
- P means the parental generation that are the true-breeding parents in a genetic cross.
- F1 means the first filial generation that are the offsprings of P generation.
- F2 means the second filial generation that are the offspring of the F1 generation.
- Dominant allele determines the appearance of the organism.
- Recessive allele can only be expressed when is homozygous recessive.
- Homozygous genotype has two identical pair of alleles for a trait.
- Heterozygous genotype has two different alleles for a trait.
- Phenotype means the physical trait expressed on the appearance of organism
- Genotype means the genetic makeup of organism.
(1)Mak[http://www.makgene.com/index.cfm?fa=content.display&content_id=39]
(2)About[http://biology.about.com/bldeff1gen.htm]
- P means the parental generation that are the true-breeding parents in a genetic cross.
- F1 means the first filial generation that are the offsprings of P generation.
- F2 means the second filial generation that are the offspring of the F1 generation.
- Dominant allele determines the appearance of the organism.
- Recessive allele can only be expressed when is homozygous recessive.
- Homozygous genotype has two identical pair of alleles for a trait.
- Heterozygous genotype has two different alleles for a trait.
- Phenotype means the physical trait expressed on the appearance of organism
- Genotype means the genetic makeup of organism.
(1)Mak[http://www.makgene.com/index.cfm?fa=content.display&content_id=39]
(2)About[http://biology.about.com/bldeff1gen.htm]
8,Determine the proper gametes when working a genetics problem
- To determine the proper gametes when working a genetics problem, we can make a punnett square with both alleles on each sides and make a cross between individuals to get the genetic makeup.
(1) Baz[http://www.biology.arizona.edu/mendelian_genetics/problem_sets/monohybrid_cross/01t.html]
(2) Uta[http://utahscience.oremjr.alpine.k12.ut.us/sciber00/7th/genetics/sciber/punnett.htm]
- To determine the proper gametes when working a genetics problem, we can make a punnett square with both alleles on each sides and make a cross between individuals to get the genetic makeup.
(1) Baz[http://www.biology.arizona.edu/mendelian_genetics/problem_sets/monohybrid_cross/01t.html]
(2) Uta[http://utahscience.oremjr.alpine.k12.ut.us/sciber00/7th/genetics/sciber/punnett.htm]
9. Illustrate the difference between an allele and a gene
- Genes are segments of DNA. Alleles are the alternative versions of gene. Gene is code for a specific trait, like hair color. Allele is different version of that trait, like the hair color of brown or black.
(1) Diff[http://www.diffen.com/difference/Allele_vs_Gene]
(2) Der[http://www.differencebetween.net/science/difference-between-gene-and-allele/]
- Genes are segments of DNA. Alleles are the alternative versions of gene. Gene is code for a specific trait, like hair color. Allele is different version of that trait, like the hair color of brown or black.
(1) Diff[http://www.diffen.com/difference/Allele_vs_Gene]
(2) Der[http://www.differencebetween.net/science/difference-between-gene-and-allele/]
10. Interpret a pedigree
- A pedigree is a diagram shows the relationship between ancestors and offsprings across several generations.
(1) Fac[http://faculty.clintoncc.suny.edu/faculty/michael.gregory/files/bio%20101/Bio%20101%20Laboratory/Pedigree%20Analysis/PEDIGREE.HTM]
(2) Topics[http://www.biotopics.co.uk/genes/pedigr.html]
- A pedigree is a diagram shows the relationship between ancestors and offsprings across several generations.
(1) Fac[http://faculty.clintoncc.suny.edu/faculty/michael.gregory/files/bio%20101/Bio%20101%20Laboratory/Pedigree%20Analysis/PEDIGREE.HTM]
(2) Topics[http://www.biotopics.co.uk/genes/pedigr.html]
11. Utilize data sets to determine Mendelian patterns of inheritance
- Mendelian patterns of inheritance is based on the genetic makeup of a single gene on a dominant, recessive, or X-linked pattern. By utilizing the data sets off the patterns, we are able to predict the genotype and phenotype of the organism and its offspring.
(1) Ncbi[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK132145/]
(2) Uvm[http://www.uvm.edu/~cgep/Education/Inheritance2.html]
- Mendelian patterns of inheritance is based on the genetic makeup of a single gene on a dominant, recessive, or X-linked pattern. By utilizing the data sets off the patterns, we are able to predict the genotype and phenotype of the organism and its offspring.
(1) Ncbi[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK132145/]
(2) Uvm[http://www.uvm.edu/~cgep/Education/Inheritance2.html]
12. Describe how the chromosome theory of inheritance connects the physical movement of chromosomes in meiosis to Mendel’s laws of inheritance
- The chromosome theory of inheritance states that genes have specific loci and that it is chromosomes goes through segregate and assort independently. The homologous chromosomes separate and alleles separate to different gametes during meiosis.
(1)Ss[http://www.slideshare.net/deepikatripathi/chromosomal-inheritance]
(2)Ans[http://www.answers.com/topic/chromosomal-theory-of-inheritance]
- The chromosome theory of inheritance states that genes have specific loci and that it is chromosomes goes through segregate and assort independently. The homologous chromosomes separate and alleles separate to different gametes during meiosis.
(1)Ss[http://www.slideshare.net/deepikatripathi/chromosomal-inheritance]
(2)Ans[http://www.answers.com/topic/chromosomal-theory-of-inheritance]
13. Illustrate the unique pattern of inheritance in sex-linked genes
-There are two types of sex chromosomes: X chromosome and Y chromosome. Sex-linked genes located on either sex chromosomes. Females have XX and males have XY. In the pattern of inheritance, fathers will pass sex-linked genes to all of his daughters, while mothers can pass her sex-linked genes to both son and daughter. Otherwise, the sex-linked gene pattern of male offspring is all depended on mother because the Y chromosome can not carry the sex-linked genes.
(1) Ant[http://anthro.palomar.edu/biobasis/bio_4.htm]
(2) Ncbi[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK22079/]
-There are two types of sex chromosomes: X chromosome and Y chromosome. Sex-linked genes located on either sex chromosomes. Females have XX and males have XY. In the pattern of inheritance, fathers will pass sex-linked genes to all of his daughters, while mothers can pass her sex-linked genes to both son and daughter. Otherwise, the sex-linked gene pattern of male offspring is all depended on mother because the Y chromosome can not carry the sex-linked genes.
(1) Ant[http://anthro.palomar.edu/biobasis/bio_4.htm]
(2) Ncbi[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK22079/]
14.Demonstrate how alteration of chromosome number or structurally altered chromosomes (deletions, duplications, etc.) can cause genetic disorders
- The alternation of chromosome number could happen during cell division and end up with some cell get incorrect number of chromosomes and cause genetic disorders, for example, down syndrome is caused by the extra copy of chromosome 21. A deletion occurs when there is a loss in chromosome sequence, resulting in a chromosome with missing genes. A duplication occurs when a segment of chromosome is repeated. An inversion occurs when a segment of chromosome breaks off and reattached to the end of the chromosome. A translocation occurs when the deleted chromosome fragment joins a non-homologous chromosome.
(1) Nat[http://www.nature.com/scitable/topicpage/dna-deletion-and-duplication-and-the-associated-331]
(2) Ndsu[http://www.ndsu.edu/pubweb/~mcclean/plsc431/chromstruct/chrmo5.htm]
- The alternation of chromosome number could happen during cell division and end up with some cell get incorrect number of chromosomes and cause genetic disorders, for example, down syndrome is caused by the extra copy of chromosome 21. A deletion occurs when there is a loss in chromosome sequence, resulting in a chromosome with missing genes. A duplication occurs when a segment of chromosome is repeated. An inversion occurs when a segment of chromosome breaks off and reattached to the end of the chromosome. A translocation occurs when the deleted chromosome fragment joins a non-homologous chromosome.
(1) Nat[http://www.nature.com/scitable/topicpage/dna-deletion-and-duplication-and-the-associated-331]
(2) Ndsu[http://www.ndsu.edu/pubweb/~mcclean/plsc431/chromstruct/chrmo5.htm]
15. Specify how genomic imprinting and inheritance of mitochondrial DNA are exceptions to standard Mendelian inheritance
- Genomic imprinting means that the phenotype of the imprinted gene depend on which allele is inherited from each parent. Follow by the Mendelian inheritance, the offspring will inherit two copies of gene: one from mother and one from father. However, the imprinted gene will only get one copy of gene from either mother or father. The inheritance of mitochondrial DNA is only from mother because the zygote’s cytoplasm comes from the egg.
(1) Utah [http://learn.genetics.utah.edu/content/epigenetics/imprinting/]
(2)Utmb[http://www.utmb.edu/pedi_ed/CORE/MedicalGenetics/page_22.htm]
- Genomic imprinting means that the phenotype of the imprinted gene depend on which allele is inherited from each parent. Follow by the Mendelian inheritance, the offspring will inherit two copies of gene: one from mother and one from father. However, the imprinted gene will only get one copy of gene from either mother or father. The inheritance of mitochondrial DNA is only from mother because the zygote’s cytoplasm comes from the egg.
(1) Utah [http://learn.genetics.utah.edu/content/epigenetics/imprinting/]
(2)Utmb[http://www.utmb.edu/pedi_ed/CORE/MedicalGenetics/page_22.htm]
In Unit 5, we learned that meiosis is important to understand because it creates gametes for sex reproduction (e.g. sperm and egg) and genetic variation though independent assortment of chromosomes, crossing over, and randomly fertilization. Medal's theory of inheritance was applied to pea plants but can also be used to understand multiple alleles in the ABO blood groups. Also, albinism is a recessive trait and achondroplasia is a dominant trait in humans. Chromosome alternations can cause genetic disorders like down syndrome, which there is an extra 21 chromosome.
Vocabulary (Chapter 13-15)
1.Heredity is the transmission of traits from one generation to the next
2.Wild type is normal phenotypes that were common in the fly populations
3.Clone is a group of genetically identical individuals from the same parent
4.Synapsis occurs when homologous chromosomes loosely pair up, aligned gene by gene
5.Complete dominance occurs when phenotypes of the heterozygote and dominant homozygote are identical
6.Tay-Sachs disease is fatal; a dysfunctional enzyme causes an accumulation of lipids in the brain
7.Pleiotropy is a property that most genes have multiple phenotypic effects
8.Genetic recombination is the production of offspring with combinations of traits differing from either parent
9.Linkage map is a genetic map of a chromosome based on recombination frequencies
10.Cytogenetic maps indicate the positions of genes with respect to chromosomal features
1.Heredity is the transmission of traits from one generation to the next
2.Wild type is normal phenotypes that were common in the fly populations
3.Clone is a group of genetically identical individuals from the same parent
4.Synapsis occurs when homologous chromosomes loosely pair up, aligned gene by gene
5.Complete dominance occurs when phenotypes of the heterozygote and dominant homozygote are identical
6.Tay-Sachs disease is fatal; a dysfunctional enzyme causes an accumulation of lipids in the brain
7.Pleiotropy is a property that most genes have multiple phenotypic effects
8.Genetic recombination is the production of offspring with combinations of traits differing from either parent
9.Linkage map is a genetic map of a chromosome based on recombination frequencies
10.Cytogenetic maps indicate the positions of genes with respect to chromosomal features